So Yukinori Kawae is research fellow at the Research Center
for Cultural Heritage and Text, Graduate School of Letters,
Nagoya University, Japan.
And he first saw the Giza pyramids way back in 1992
as a 19-year-old traveling from Japan to study the site.
He moved to Cairo straight out of high school.
And since then, Yuki's spent 16 years in Egypt
and graduated from the American University in Cairo
with his degree in Egyptology.
And that was under one of our former speakers
this semester, Dr. Salima Ikram.
He started his academic career as a member
of the Ancient Egypt Research Associates led by Mark Lehner,
and he was one of the supervisors
of the Heit el-Ghurab site, the so-called lost
city of the pyramids just to the south of Giza.
Since the earliest stage of the introduction
of 3D technology into the field of Egyptian archeology,
he worked with 3D surveys of ancient megalithic structures.
In 2006, he joined an interdisciplinary research
project to produce 3D surveys of the tomb of Queen Khentkawes--
that's that stumpy pyramid of Giza,
the so-called fourth pyramid--
and also in the worker's cemetery of Giza.
And in 2008, at the request of the Supreme Council
of Antiquities, as it was known then--
now it is the Ministry of State for Antiquities in Egypt--
he formed an industry, academic, and government project
and successfully completed comprehensive 3D documentation
of Egypt's oldest pyramid, the step pyramid of Djoser
at Saqqara, which is now under restoration.
In 2013, he expanded his collaborative research
to include a Japanese TV production company.
With a crew from TV Man Union, he
climbed the Great Pyramid of Khufu
to get data on its core masonry.
Currently, he's working with the Czech Institute of Egyptology,
led by Dr. Miroslav Barta--
another name you may find familiar
because he was another one of our speakers this semester.
So I love the way our speaker series is
coming full circle this term.
And he's leading an interdisciplinary approach
that incorporates computer science
and applied math to record the pyramids at Abusir,
the royal cemetery from the fifth dynasty.
It's about 11 kilometers south of Giza.
In 2016, Yuki was selected for the singular
honor of being a National Geographic Emerging Explorer.
In 2017, his team carried out the first drone survey
at Giza in collaboration with TV Man Union
and successfully produced the first detailed 3D data
of the Giza pyramids.
A TV documentary inspired a young Yuki
to become an archaeologist, and now he is the one on screen,
appearing in Japanese programs and giving
talks about Egyptian archeology and the history
of ancient Egypt.
And that's what he's here to do for us tonight.
Please welcome Yukinori Kawae.
So thank you, Peter, to introduce
comprehensive my career.
So hello everybody.
I'm very pleased to give a presentation here
at Harvard University.
Because, you know, this university
is a place where Professor George Reisner was teaching.
So he was one of the master archaeologists who
worked at Giza for a long time and also established
scientific and systematic survey and the mapping
in Egyptian archeology.
So the general public, and even Egyptologists,
tended to attach little importance
to surveying and mapping compared to discovery.
But they are, of course, some of the most important tasks
in the field of archeology.
The father of Egyptian archaeologists, Sir Flinders
Petrie, said that most indispensable
and important in the tools she brought
to an archaeological site was a camera.
This is because, unlike line drawing and narrative
descriptions, which are archaeological interpretation,
a photo can contain the variety of the objective information.
So recently, digital cameras contain much more information
than previous thought.
So a photo contains not only shape
and the color information, but also
camera parameter and the GPS information [INAUDIBLE]..
So by using such information with the structure
from motion technique, which I'm going to talk later,
we can now produce 3D data.
So furthermore, by attaching the camera to a drone,
so it is possible to obtain image data over a place
where access was previously impossible.
So we can now obtain 3D data that
has never been produced before.
So this video footage, you now think,
is the top of the Khafre Pyramid,
second pyramid of Giza.
So even though it is a pyramid, everyone knows, no one
was able to see the detail of this place.
This is actually the first time to show this video footage
in the US.
And by using the image photographed by drone,
we successfully produced the 3D data of Khafre's Pyramid.
So today, I will introduce the history
of our activities of 3D surveys of Memphite pyramids
with most recent, this 3D drone survey of Giza pyramids.
But first, I will talk about our normal 3D survey
using terrestrial time-of-flight laser scanner at Giza.
So in 2006, Ancient Egypt Research Associates,
led by Dr. Mark Lehner, established Giza laser
scanning survey team with Japanese consulting
to scan tomb of Queen Khentkawes I at Giza.
I was a member of this team.
So my 3D documentation of a Memphite royal tomb
began with a 3D laser scanning survey of tomb of Khentkawes.
So this has happened.
So Queen Khentkawes is a mysterious figure,
having ambiguous title which, depending
on the interpretation, means either she
was a mother of two kings of Upper and Lower Egypt,
or she was actually the King of Upper and Lower Egypt
and also mother of King of Upper and Lower Egypt.
So she may have reigned over Egypt
for a short time after Menkaure and his successor, Shepseskaf,
at the end of the fourth dynasty.
So our team, focused on 3D scanning
Khentkawes' giant mastaba-like tomb,
which is composed of two parts.
Base cut from natural limestone bedrock, this part, 45.5
by 45.8 meter, and 10 meter high.
And superstructure rising in 11 course of limestone blocks
to a height of 7.5 meters.
So her tomb stands at Giza.
So southeast of Giza plateau and near the central field
of the Giza cemetery and the central valley.
So using three laser scanners, our team work for two weeks
to capture her monument to produce
the first detailed archaeological data
of this unusual tomb.
Previously, Egyptian archaeologist Selim Hassan
excavated the base of the monument in 1932 to 1933,
and published 100 to 200 [? stigmatic ?] maps.
So later, Vito Maragioglio and Celeste Rinaldi,
Italian architects, also studied architecture of the tomb.
So their plans on the section are only
the one today that shows architectural detail
and includes specific measurements.
So this is our updated orthophotographic plan
produced from our laser scanning data which, as you can see--
so very different from previous archaeological map.
And it is interesting to note that her tomb is not square,
but somewhat parallelogram in shape.
The reason for this shape may have
been the result of quarrying activity
along the natural fissure once running around her tomb.
So this is an elevation of Mokattam.
Onto the south face of a bedrock pedestal,
a series of tall, broad panel.
And the [INAUDIBLE] and the recessed niches,
we know it's a palace facade motif were carved.
So this motif commonly appears on sarcophagi
and also the mastaba of the early dynasties.
The panel facades, decoration, and the most of which
has been eroded here, as you can see here.
But the remains of the niches and the panels identify that--
like here, at the far upper east end,
and also here at the very bottom of the southern face--
so this tells us that it was intended
to create eight broad, decorative facades with eight
simple facades like that.
So reconstruction of palace facades
indicated by white line, while this red line
indicates the remains of the niches and panels.
So our first 3D survey, in 2006--
it's more than 10 years--
clearly indicated that this survey technique
is very useful in the field of Egyptian archeology.
But at the same time, it became also clear
that 3D data is not easily handled
without expensive software and the professional expertise,
due to the massive amount of data.
So we attempt to solve this problem next project at Abusir.
So in 2015, as a summer project of Abusir
archaeological exploration conducted
by Czech Institute of Egyptology,
we again, Japanese consulting, initiated Abusir 3D survey
for 3D documentation of the site pyramid.
The first season of project focused
on exterior of Neferirkare's pyramid, which is the largest
pyramid at Abusir.
So Neferirkare was the third king of the fifth dynasty.
So his pyramid was unique appearance.
And it's thought to have originally been constructed
using step pyramid style.
But it was later altered to true pyramid, for unknown reason,
with base lengths of 105 meters, and rising
to a height of 72 meters.
So Abusir is located about 11 kilometers south of Giza.
It served as one of the main area of cemeteries
for ancient Egyptian capital city of Memphis,
especially the [? first few ?] dynasty of the Old Kingdom.
The Czech Institute of Egyptology
has been conducting excavation at Abusir since the 1970s.
The excavations are currently directed
by Professor Miroslav Barta, who gave a lecture here
last November.
I'm sure some of you actually attend the lecture.
So academic research using 3D technology
has become popular in the field of Egyptian archeology.
But also, this new technology allowed
for more detailed documentation than conventional hand mapping,
like the one I showed you.
It has yet to be fully integrated
into archaeological research.
There appear to be several reasons for this situation.
One of the crucial reasons, I think,
is that the 3D surveys normally have no other option
than to scan a subject as thoroughly as
possible in the hope of gathering whatever data might
be considered relevant to [? projectable. ?]
But this results in a large and unnecessary volume of 3D data.
So that is not easily handled without expensive software
and the professional expertise.
So in essence, we can call this overscanning of subject.
In offering a solution to this problem,
we promote interactive interdisciplinary research
program conducted by archaeologists and engineers,
computer scientists, as well as software engineers
and applied mathematicians in order to properly document
a monument.
Actually, my team--
I'm the only archaeologist, and the other team members
are computer scientists and applied mathematicians
and physics and--
it's not people from archeology.
So first of all, we checked the resolution
of our previous 3D data.
This is also a photographic image
of 3D data of Tomb of Khentkawes at Giza.
The number of the point of the data
is 250 million point cloud.
So this what we call [INAUDIBLE] point
cloud, because it is a set of the data of the point
in coordinate system.
In three-dimensional coordinate system,
these point are usually defined by x and y and z coordinate.
So this is an enlarged image of eastern side
of tomb of Khentkawes.
The resolution of the area in the shadow
is 6.0 meter pitch per centimeter,
while it is 3.7 milli for the area in the sun.
So in the Abusir 3D survey project, we attempt to apply--
quantitatively model the strategy
instead of relying only on experience of 3D surveyors
in order to avoid the overscanning.
So we call this strategy the optical scan plan.
So I was asked my team member, when we decided
to carry out Abusir 3D survey--
so they asked me, "So what is your plan?"
And then I explained my plan is, you know,
[Egyptian for blah blah blah].
But my team member said, "No, this is not a strategy.
This is just grit and guts.
You have to think about strategically."
So he explained, and my team member explained,
optical scan plan.
So what is it?
So optical scan plan, however, 3D information of the subject
is needed beforehand, though we are
facing with a kind of dilemma, that a 3D model is required
in order to appropriate the plan of 3D
scanning survey with mathematical programming.
So then, we choose structure from motion technique,
which is a technique to produce a 3D model from 2D image--
I mean, digital photo-- easily.
So we produced large 3D model with this technique.
On the left here is a process flow
for 3D modeling of preliminary survey.
We first take the photo, and the two
collected in the photo collection.
Then we use the structure from motion technique
to produce 3D point cloud data.
And then, using multi-view stereo, we use the mesh model.
After that, we do down sampling.
And then we made in the lab 3D mesh model.
So this is a flowchart for 3D modeling of preliminary survey.
And on the right, this is scan planning
with mathematical programming framework.
So this is our first step.
We visit the site, obviously, to quickly photograph
the pyramids.
We spent only a few hours--
I think two hours or three hours--
to obtain digital image and video footage of the pyramid,
Neferirkare pyramid, using digital camera.
This is my colleague Dr. Yoshimura
and he's an engineer from Kansai University.
And he used his own digital camera to take the photos.
So the data, then, analyzed using [INAUDIBLE]
and multi-view stereo software.
And then we produced 1.69 million point cloud dataset
from 624 digital images for our mathematical optimization
process.
After that, we choose regions of interest--
ROI, what we call it--
in which core masonry still remained.
The red colors in this image indicate
our archaeological region of interest.
And I would say this process is very important.
Indispensable process.
Otherwise, 3D surveyors often scan a subject as thoroughly as
possible, as I said previously.
So next, we downsize obtained in the mesh of the target area
and made simplified model from around 5,000 triangulates
for mathematical optimization process, as shown here.
And here is Dr. Dan, my team member from Kansai University.
He's an applied mathematician who
planned the mathematical optimization
process, optical scan plan.
And here, he's explaining to me the process flow
for 3D modeling of preliminary survey.
So our first priority is to scan entire pyramids
as much as possible, but not overscanning, as I said.
And next, we measured region of interest
with a certain density of point cloud.
In consideration of these conditions,
Dan mathematically obtained appropriate scanning point.
So first, we identified in the camera position of 624 photos
we took.
These camera positions were used as the [INAUDIBLE]
of scanner position.
So then, Dan mathematically solved the optimization
problem.
So eventually, it became clear that we needed only seven scans
to measure all face of Neferirkare pyramid.
The image here is optical layout of seven scanner positions.
So white dot-- this one--
our [INAUDIBLE] scanner of 624 positions.
And the red dot, like here, depict scanner positions.
So we also used visualized effectiveness
of our scanning plan.
So brighter color, here, were receiving the higher number
of scanning laser beam from these seven positions.
So we did the scanning plan, so we finish it.
So then we are ready to go to Egypt.
But we had a problem.
Our scanner looks funny, I know.
Our scanner, so [INAUDIBLE] the photo [INAUDIBLE] laser scanner
was too heavy to be check-in baggage,
as it went over 40 kilogram.
So the baggage allowance on all the airlines to Egypt
does not exceed 30 kilo.
So what we have to do is, we had to purchase a seat for scanner
on board.
So flight attendants ask me to fasten seat belt for scanner.
Then it was too bulky.
And then I needed to get an extra belt
and finally fasten the seatbelt.
So finally, we get it to Egypt.
And then, my team member Dr. [INAUDIBLE]
and his graduate student, [INAUDIBLE]
began to set up the scanner.
In this optical scan plan, we also
emphasize human interaction to give feedback
from the site for flexibility and effectivity,
changing the plan according to needs on site.
This is called Human-in-the-loop in the machine learning,
which is defined as a model that requires human interaction.
But we call this archaeologist-in-the-loop.
So, for example, when we realize that our scanner could not
be put in the position we planned,
or when we thought we should scan
the pyramid from extra positions,
so we homed it to Dan from the site, normally by Twitter.
And then, he'd calculate it and then model it
with optical scan plan.
So this is archaeologist-in-the-loop.
So our first priority was to scan entire pyramid.
But however, from the beginning, optical scan plan
indicated that some area, such as the top of the pyramid,
can be scanned from the ground-set laser scanners.
So if we use a drone, of course, it
would be very easy to obtain the image data for structure
from motion for the production of the 3D data.
But we are unable to use one that time.
So instead of a drone, we used small, 180-degree cameras which
we attached to a fishing rod.
So a fishing rod in the desert, I know, it looks very weird.
But it's actually effective.
It's very effective.
Yeah, you know, my Egyptian colleague said,
"What are you doing with a fishing rod in the desert?"
And of course, they are wondering,
these guys are crazy, or nuts.
But anyway, it was effective for obtaining the image data
for the top of the pyramid.
So this is, finally, we produce 3D model
of Neferirkare's pyramid.
The average height of the pyramid
in its current condition is approximately 41.5 meter.
And then average base length of the pyramid
in its current condition is approximately 92 meter.
So original height is considered to be 72 meter,
and its base is 105 meter.
So it is a bit hard to believe a 30-meter high structure
was weathered and lost.
So I think we probably have to reconsider its original height
and the shape.
And regarding the problem of overscanning,
the number of the point is only 47 million.
This is a very small number in comparison
with tomb of Khentkawes, which is
much smaller than this pyramid.
So Khentkawes' tomb is only 80 meter high,
and its base is about 42 by 44 wide.
But the number of the point cloud is 250 million.
And regarding archaeological region of interest--
so like here.
This is an enlarged image of the south face
of Neferirkare's pyramid, which is
one of our archaeological region of interest.
So this image clearly shows that the structure of the pyramid
is well defined.
So according to the US General Service Administration--
GSA-- Building Information Modeling--
BIM-- Guide Series 03, 3D Laser Scanning,
the general quality level of the scanned 3D point data should be
described based on point of density.
So this table shows a project definition matrix
that can be used to identify how 3D data can be used
to support project objectives.
According to this matrix, the scanned
the data can be in two full levels
based on the density of the point crowd.
And our point crowd is between level two and level three.
So our archaeological aim was successfully
achieved, our project.
So we referred to this General Service Administration Building
Information Modeling to evaluate our archaeological 3D data.
But I think that we should actually
establish Archaeological Information Modeling, AIM,
Guide Series, by ourself.
So this will be our next research subject.
So this is a 3D model of Neferirkare Pyramid which
was created by one of our team members, Mr.
[Ishikawa, CG artist.
We normally produced two types of data.
One is for academic research such as
orthophotographic elevation and the plan, which I showed you.
The other is for public lecture, like this CG.
So we normally say that this is CG image.
And so when the 3D survey of megalithic structures
like pyramids is conducted using terrestrial time-of-flight
laser scanner, it is not easy to capture entire structures
with a monument.
Therefore, in our project, we applied
mathematical optimization approach
for 3D recording of the pyramid in a cost-effective way.
The usefulness of this newly developed plan
become very clear in the archaeological survey.
So we continued.
In 2013, we also started to collaborate with Japanese TV
production company, TV Man Union,
to establish Giza 3D survey to obtain the 3D data of the Giza
Pyramid.
As many of you know, there are numerous hypotheses
on the construction of the Great Pyramid.
But only a few actual surveys have
been conducted, such as Egyptologist Flinders
Petrie in 1880s, and Vito Maragioglio and Celeste
Rinaldi in 1960s, and Gilles Dormion and Patrice Gordon
in 1980s--
but is published in 2004.
So moreover, these archaeological surveys
have only focus on external part of the pyramid
and the inner structures such as the chambers and the corridors
and the passage.
But no observation of the pyramid has been made.
The masonry of the pyramid of this period,
the fourth dynasty of the Old Kingdom,
has not yet been fully studied, because most
of the pyramids in this period are well-preserved.
So you can see the section of the pyramid.
But general opinion first.
So core masonry may consist of a horizontal laid block.
And second-- so pyramids may have a core step.
We know the pyramid is a core step from the queen's pyramid.
And also, third, the core may be built with a [INAUDIBLE] layer.
The importance of the study of the inside of the structure
is that core masonry is closely related to the construction
methods, namely, the type of the ramp Ancient Egyptians
would have employed.
For example, straight ramp is probably
suitable for setting horizontal reversing block.
Or debursting ramp, or zigzag ramp,
can be easy to lay stones that are core step.
Or wide acceleration layer core would
be appropriate for overlap spiral ramp.
So each theory has, of course, disadvantages and advantages.
But certainly, without the study of the core masonry
on these early on paper.
There is a place, however, where we can actually
observe the core masonry of the Great Pyramid.
But if you want to observe this, you
have to climb up the pyramid, because it
is located at northeast corner of the pyramid,
and about 80 meter from the ground.
In 2013 and the 2015, Japanese TV Man Union,
TV production company, had the opportunity
to climb the pyramid.
And I was with them.
And they climbed up the pyramid to obtain
the data of the masonry structure of the pyramid.
So this the video footage our cameraman filmed.
I'm often asked how long it took to climb the Great Pyramid.
It took five and 1/2 hours to climb up and descend.
Because we measured every course of the pyramid
to check the height of the stone,
which had previously been measured only
by Flinders Petrie and George Goyon.
It was quite the experience, because it
is an ancient monument.
We had to climb without pitons and safety rope.
And the slope of the Great Pyramid
is 51 degree, 50 minutes.
But as you can see here--
when you see the slope from the top to down,
yeah, it is almost vertical.
I was really worried about the cameraman
might fall from above, because he actually filmed like that.
And then even he--
before he climbed the pyramid, he confessed to me,
"I'm terrified of heights."
But he also said, "But if I have a camera,
there should be no problem."
Yeah.
In fact, he managed to film without any problems.
So [INAUDIBLE].
So we arrived at our target area, a small half-open space
called notch.
The notch is located over the 104th course of the northeast
corner of the pyramid.
It is often said that stones of the pyramid were perfectly set.
Yeah, I think that some of you have visited in Egypt.
Then tour guides actually mention to you between
the stone, even the knife cannot actually-- the putting it.
But as you can see here, the stone inside pyramid
are not perfectly set and aligned.
The masonry is loose.
And first of all, interestingly, the notch
has a crevice in the west that led
to another open space called the cave, inside the pyramid.
So these places can show core masonry structure.
So here's the cave.
Again, as you can see here, stones
that are inside the pyramid, they
are not perfectly set on the lines, even not oriented.
So these areas are important in study.
Because, as I mentioned, previous archaeological surveys
of the Great Pyramid have only focused
on external part of the monument and in space
such as the chamber, and the passage, and the corridor.
But no observation of the core pyramid has been made.
Therefore, if we can produce 3D data of this area,
this will be the first data produced
of actual state of the core of the Great Pyramid.
But since it was not pure archaeological--
the survey, I didn't bring any survey equipment at that time.
But I really wanted to record this area.
So I asked my team member computer scientist
whether it is possible to produce 3D
data from this video footage.
My colleagues, Dr. [INAUDIBLE] and Dr. [INAUDIBLE]
said it is possible.
And also, TV Man Union kindly allowed
us to use this video footage for academic research.
So 20 minutes video footage was split into 30,000 image frames,
out of which we selected 300 image
shots using several smooth motion of the camera.
And then, we used these for structure from motion technique
to reconstruct 3D model of this study area.
But Dr. Yoshimura kept complaining one thing
when he produced 3D data.
So he said, "You are bothering me.
Because in every frame, I see you.
You are there."
But what can I do?
This is not my intention.
This is just a TV documentary.
But anyway, so finally, we could create 3D data
with this structure.
This is our 3D data of the notch and cave.
This is, of course, not imaginary CG.
It is not.
But it is purely based on archaeological structure
of the Great Pyramid.
As this shows, stone in this area
are much looser and irregular than previously thought.
And as I said, even they are not oriented.
As I mentioned before, general opinion
regarding the core masonry layer, the first core
may consist of horizontal length block.
The second pyramid may have a core step.
Third, core may be built with acceleration layer.
However, orthophotographic section
we produced from 3D data show a different structure
from previous theories.
Our interpretation is that this cavity
would have been used for the chamber method, which
have remarkably accelerate the work in an economical way.
The possibility of the application
of this construction method has already
been suggested by Dr. Miroslav Verner, ex-director of Czech
Institute of Egyptology.
So our 3D data and archaeological interpretation
would support his idea.
So the chamber method was actually well-known technique
throughout Egyptian history.
In the pyramid of Middle Kingdom--
pyramid of Senusret I at Lisht, irregular pattern
of the masonry floor surrounded by [INAUDIBLE] masonry
is already known.
So notch and the cave seems to be
similar to this construction.
So even in the Old Kingdom, we can
see some example of this method, such as the ambulatory
of the Sun Temple of Nyuserre at Abu Ghurob.
So besides the notch and the cave
here, there are other regions of interest
such as upper part of the Khafre's pyramid,
where we can observe the relationship
among casing stone, backing stone, and also core masonry.
And the top of the Great Pyramid also very important,
because where we can observe the inner structure
at the top cross-section view.
So this is a top.
The Great Pyramid was presumably constructed
from 210 limestone courses.
However, due to the loss about casing stone and capping stone,
the top of the pyramid is currently
approximately 12 meter exposure of 200 first courses.
And again, I photograph the top of the pyramid.
I took many photos.
Then, we used these digital photos, and then also
video footage, for 3D reconstruction using structure
from motion and multi-view stereo technique.
But unfortunately, this didn't work well.
The image shown on the screen behind me, as you can see here,
there is a missing part in the 3D data.
For the production of the perfect 3D data of the top,
it is necessary to photograph using a drone
from more distance place and from more angles.
Initially, we are thinking about bringing a drone into Egypt.
But it was difficult, because in Arabic, a drone
is called a spy plane.
So the Egyptian authorities are concerned
about the risk of a drone being used for military purposes.
So it was impossible to bring it into Egypt
from a foreign country at that time.
However, by a series of happy accidents,
we finally carry out drone survey last year.
First of all, I was, as Peter mentioned,
elected as Emerging Explorer of the National Geographic
Society.
This is not my personal achievement,
of course, but achievement of all my team members.
So next, 13th anniversary of the TV program--
Japanese TV program--
World Mystery Discovery, [JAPANESE],,
produced by TBS and the TV Man Union.
So TV Man Union decided to collaborate
with National Geographic Society and support National Geo
Explorer.
So they supported our project again.
And we couldn't bring a drone into Egypt,
but TV MAN UNION found a local drone company
who obtained a special permission from the military
to use a drone in the country.
So beside photographing with drone,
we had to set up and obtain difference point
for global navigation satellite system, GNSS,
which is well known as GPS, Global Positioning System,
but for integration with 3D data.
This is because if 3D data generated from photograph
isn't integrated with survey data, it is just a 3D model,
and its size and orientation are unknown.
So reference point for drone survey
were pasted on the pyramid with duct tape, of course.
They are easy to peel off, and then no damage to the monument
occurred.
So these reference points were then
measured with total station, then integrated with GNSS data.
For each pyramid, we took pictures in detail each place.
So small-scale, you can see here marks in these slides, which
is the east side of the Pyramid of Khafre, the position where
we photographed with a drone.
So for the pyramid of Khufu, we shoot more than 7,000 photos.
For Khafre's pyramid and the Menkaure pyramid,
we shoot more than 4,000 photos.
So this is 3D image created, again, by our team member Mr.
[? Ishikawa, ?] CG artist.
And again, this is not imaginary CG,
but it is based on 3D model integrated with GNSS data.
So each stone and each--
the stone will present the original shape and the size.
And then this is our previous notch
and the cave data we also integrated
within the drone data.
So this is remarkable result.
But how we can use this data for archaeological purpose?
Previously, only the sketch by Vito Maragioglio and Celeste
Rinaldi, Italian architect, exist of the top.
So I should emphasize that this is
the only place we can observe the top cross-sectional view
of the inner structure of the Great Pyramid.
But as you can see here, it is very difficult
to understand the structure from this sketch.
So we used digital photos taken by drone for 3D reconstruction.
So this is our first detailed plan
of the top of the Great Pyramid from our 3D data.
This plan is not just point cloud image,
but shows [? duration ?] structures.
This plan is produced by [? Pict, ?]
which is our newly developed image processing technology.
So [? Pict ?] can also show color distance.
The color of the point expresses quantified
the distance between the point and an arbitrary plane.
So warmer color, like this brown and the yellow,
means shorter distance from the reader's viewpoint.
And the cooler color, like in the blue and green,
means longer distance.
From this [? Pict ?] image, we made in line drawing
and then numbered every stone blocks.
We counted in the 104 blocks from one to 86
on 200 first course, and from 87 to 104 on 200 second course.
So by dimension of the area is approximately 11.7 meter.
And the 11.9 meter, this is the present state
of the top of the Great Pyramid.
So our next question is to find out
how large this area originally was
for understanding relationship among the casing stone
and backing stone and core masonry.
So from the [? Pict-- ?] sorry, this one--
we use, actually, the similarity in geometry.
So I'm archaeologist.
I have no idea how to get these geometry things.
But as I said, I've been working with a computer scientist.
And then I gave kind of a quiz to them.
So then they just answered within 15 minutes
by Skype and email.
So this is their answer.
So we know original height of the pyramid, which is 146.58.
And we also knew original lengths
of the base, which were recently being
measured by Glen Dash from Ancient Egypt Research
Associate.
And it is 230.392 meter on average.
So this is a mathematical formula.
And the answer is 13.64.
So this white area is the original dimension of the top.
We also calculated the total weight
of existing stone and original blocks.
The total weight of the existing blocks
is about 188 tons and if density of the limestone is 2.6.
And the total weight of the original blocks
was about 273 tons.
In other words, the [INAUDIBLE] rate was 68.95%.
And about 31% of the blocks are missing.
But I should emphasize that there's
uncertainty in this value.
So next, in order to understand the structure of the top,
we made a cross section of every line of the blocks.
There are cross section landing east-west, like that.
And then most of the section clearly shows
that the top of the pyramid is not leveled.
But there are two areas that are very level,
which are north end and south ends of the top.
And I carried out the same procedure
of the north-south cross section again.
And most of the section showed in the top of the pyramid
is bumpy.
But there's one area is very leveled,
which are east end and west end.
And east end is--
it's also leveled.
But due to the blocks of the 202nd course
on the top of this area, you can actually not
observe the complete cross-section in this area.
So these area are backing stone.
So backing stone are generally considered
to be frame that support casing stone.
So another interesting point is that the center
of the 201st course is recessed.
And conversely, the large stones were put in
like here, the center of the 202nd course,
to create convex surface.
So this is enhanced the image.
But similar structure.
Yet one that is more sophisticated
can be seen at the top of the pyramid of the Khafre.
You might remember the first video footage I showed you.
So this structure is applied to improve,
I think, in the stability, which is probably not
only for the top of the pyramid, but also
the main body of the pyramid.
And as I said the beginning of this lecture,
there are many hypotheses concerning the construction
of the pyramids.
However, only a few actual surveys have been conducted.
And also, previous study of the construction pyramids
tend to talk about the whole construction at once.
But we would like to demonstrate construction technique
of particular area such as the top of the pyramid,
because it is a 3D--
the data, we can actually separate each course
and then analyze quantitatively, the course by course.
And in the near future, we would also
like to publish this data to promote further research
on the pyramids.
So before I finish my lecture, I would
like to give a special thanks to Ministry
of the State of Antiquities and the Supreme
Council of Antiquities, and especially
my Egyptian colleagues for their cooperation.
So thank you very much.
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